AEC – Architecture, Engineering, and Construction
AI – Artificial Intelligence
AM – Additive Manufacturing
BIM - Building Information Modeling
CAD - Computer-Aided Design
CAM - Computer-Aided Manufacturing
CNC – Computer Numerically Controlled
DED – Directed Energy Deposition
FDM - Fused Deposition Modeling
HM – Hybrid Manufacturing
IF – In situ Fabricator
IoT – Internet of Things
SM – Subtractive Manufacturing
S2 – Systems Reef 2
SDC – Smart Dynamic Casting
SHA – Safety, Health, and Working Environment
SLS – Selective Laser Sintering
WAAM – Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Introduction

The Current Situation

The world is building at an unprecedented pace. With an estimated world population of 9.7 billion people in 2050 (Roser and Rodés-Guirao 2013), people need places to live, to work, and to thrive. Cities are expected to house almost 70 % of the population by 2050, up from 30 % in the 1950s (World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision 2019). Being able to provide dignified living conditions as we build denser than ever before is imperative. Now, the construction sector has to produce more buildings, especially housing, and with a lack of skilled labor and an aging workforce, finding a way to build faster, better, and more sustainable is necessary.

The post-war focus on residential building has for the most part been to build as efficiently and as cheaply as possible, providing a good return on investment and a quick turnaround. To enable this, the industry has found quick and cost-efficient production methods based on standardization that has allowed it to cut costs by combining predefined elements and modules. Gone are the days of bespoke timber frames, bay windows and custom detailing. Now, rows and rows of the same facade cladding, designed to work on a standardized center to center distance of 600 millimeters, make up the skin of the building. The identical plates are cheap to produce, require the minimum effort to line up and mount, and are easy to clean. They also look exactly the same, providing little visual stimuli for the inhabitants.

It is not the goal of the developers to produce uninspiring architecture, it is rather a consequence of the production methods. Housing is necessary and in demand, producing it quickly is critical and spending more capital to increase its visual qualities does not increase the profit margins proportionally. The goal is to pass the bar the municipality has put forth in regard to aesthetics to be granted a building permit, a bar that is set way too low. Anything beyond the minimum cuts into profits, either through more expensive materials or complex building systems that increase construction time and thus expenses. Architects are working with what they have, vying to provide some degree of visual stimuli in the projects they are designing. However, this does not cut it. New building projects are facing an increasing backlash when it comes to their aesthetic qualities. People are voicing their opinions and demanding a better built environment.

Newington Court, student accommodation by Stockwool. The facade is wrapped in a woven aluminum mesh 'derived from an interpretation of the shadow and shimmering of foliage' that 'creates an undulating screen providing a dramatic play of exterior facade and interior activity further animating the surrounding spaces'. Images by Morley von Sternberg.

Aesthetics and Health

The aesthetic qualities of the surroundings we live and work in influence our well-being and affect our impressions, moods, emotions and performance (Weenig and Staats 2010). Environments that are aesthetically pleasing provide a range of health benefits like increased happiness and lower levels of stress and anxiety. Architectural factors are seen as important. The layout and proportions of the space as well as whether the aesthetic properties are integrated with the architecture instead of tacked on afterwards matter. Interesting shapes, movement, color, and patterns in both the structure of the building but also in its interior décor and furniture are expressed as desirable. Nature is seen as a major factor, and being able to see flowers, plants, trees, and water as well as exterior views with natural light provides benefits. The combination of these elements allow for the creation of environments that are beneficial to its inhabitants (Caspari, Eriksson, and Nåden 2011).

Technology as a Driver for Change

Throughout history, technology has always been a leading driver of change. From the sparse beginnings of the stone age, where caves and crude huts made of sticks and pelts were used as shelters, people have continued to develop new methods and technology to shape their surroundings (Kostof and Castillo 1995). As humans settled in permanent villages and cities after the agricultural revolution, they built dwellings using more robust materials like timber and stone. The ancient Mesopotamians started firing bricks 5000 years B.C. (Fiala et al. 2019), which they used to construct ziggurats like the Great Ziggurat of Ur. In ancient Rome, they used opus caementicium, roman concrete, together with the arch, vault, and dome to create their monumental temples, amphitheaters, and aqueducts. The pointed arch, cross vault, and flying buttress were key in enabling the development of Gothic architecture in the High Medieval Period.

In modern times, the first industrial revolution during the late 18th and early 19th century enabled the use of iron and steel, which made it possible to build taller and stronger buildings, such as the early skyscrapers. The second industrial revolution at the start of the 20th century brought with it the electrification of factories which started the era of modern mass production (Coluccia 2012). Now, products could be manufactured to exact specifications for systematic assembly, which laid the groundwork for the construction industry of today.

Reconstructive painting of Terra Amata, a 400,000-year-old stone age camp, by M. Wilson.

Construction 4.0 and Digital Fabrication

The fourth industrial revolution, also known as Industry 4.0 (Bai et al. 2020), is the use of information technology to increase production and efficiency in manufacturing through the integration of the Internet of Things (IoT), advanced robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), digital fabrication and sensor technology. Countries where skilled labor is expensive will be able to capitalize on the higher degree of automation provided by Industry 4.0 (Rüßmann et al. 2015).

The Industry 4.0 approach to the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry has been dubbed Construction 4.0. A major aspect of Construction 4.0 is the use of digital fabrication methods, seamlessly using digital data to fabricate products using machines and robots. Historically, the construction sector has been conservative when it comes to change, being slow to adopt new technology compared to other industries like manufacturing, automotive, and aerospace (Sawhney, Riley, and Irizarry 2020). The construction sector is lagging behind when it comes to the growth of labor-productivity, averaging 1 percent growth per year over the last two decades, compared to 3.6 percent for the manufacturing industry (Barbosa, Woetzel, and Mischke 2017). Construction 4.0 is viewed as a way to increase productivity and efficiency in the industry.

This thesis is a look into what digital fabrication methods can do for industrial residential construction. It is meant to be exploratory in nature, and the intention is to assess the landscape rather than creating finished solutions.